Joint Criminal Liability for Murder | Case Study

Joint Criminal Liability for Murder | Case Study Introduction: This assignment will attempt to analyse lesser criminal liabilities leading up to stronger criminal liabilities for all parties involved in a possible conviction of murder by focussing on the major themes of contending and procuring, aiding and abetting, accessory liability, unlawful killing, grievous bodily harm (death resulting) and causation. Joint Criminal Liability between Andy, Matthew Jimmy Are both Andy and Matthew equally principal offenders for the purpose of distinguishing criminal liability? Criminal liability A person who commits the acts which form whole or part of the actus reus of the crime is known as a ‘principal in the first degree†: Osland v R (1998) [1] It can be derived from the facts that both Andy and Matthew were present at the scene to carry out a joint criminal enterprise: Tangye (1997) [2] as there was an express agreement: Tangye (1997) [3]made between the two to seize the managers of large supermarkets in their homes and force them to return to their supermarkets and open the safes. On the facts it cannot be established that derivative liability exists between the two or any failure to agree to such actions is present: Osland v R (1998) [4]rather an â€Å"acting in concert† which may create the effect of equally placing responsibility on each individual for the acts of the other: R v Lowery and King (No.2) (1972) [5] Both Andy and Matthew may be charged with Conspiracy under S.321 to commit and offence does this extend to Jimmy? Conspiracy Andy puts his plans to Mathew who agrees to take part in the robberies, for a percentage of the proceeds under S.321 of the crimes Act 1958 this agreement made between Andy and Matthew resulted in the involvement and commission of the offence hence may lead to a finding of guilt in conspiracy to commit that offence. Does this apply to Jimmys level of involvement? Actus Reus Conspiracy has been defined as an agreement to do an unlawful act or a lawful act by unlawful means†:R V Jones (1832) [6] there is clearly no question of dispute that both Andy and Mathew decided that the best way of making quick money was to execute the agreed criminal act. To establish contravention of s.321 it may be inferred that Jimmys conduct of providing a â€Å"safe house intentionally perverted the course of Justice or intended to pervert the administration of public justice: James v. Robinson (1963) [7] hence making Jimi a complicit in the commission of a crime. Mens Rea The establishment of both Andy and Matthewss intentional agreement to contravene s.321 is apparent on the facts posing the question whether a conspiracy charge is as effective as heavier weighed substantive charges available: Hoar v R (1981) [8] Jimmy may be found guilty under the equally applicable test if it is proved that the provision of the ‘safe house was a furtherance to the common purpose: R. v. Tripodi (1955) [9] in effect being liable for accessorial liability due to the counselling and procuring involved with Andy and Matthews main offences. Defences The scope of mens rea clearly applied to Jimmy is debatable â€Å"a conspiracy is proved by evidence of the actual terms of the agreement made or accepted or by evidence from which an agreement to effect common objects or purpose is inferred.†: Gerakiteys v R (1984) [10]. No evidence of actual terms of the agreement provides a clear entry point before the act or common object to the commission of the offence by Jimmy: R v Theophanous (2003) [11]The mere providing of a â€Å"safe house provides only an inference for a jury to draw upon after the fact of Jimis level of participation. In this light the evidence may fall short of establishing a clear level of involvement: R V Darby (1982)[12]. Due to the possible grey area in establishing Jimmys intention to pervert the course of justice the possibility of an acquittal under s.321 may result, if the inference of the overt act in itself is not proved beyond reasonable doubt aligning common purpose against other substantive criminal acts: R V Darby (1982) [13]. Both Andy and Matthew may be charged with Burglary does this extend to Aggravated Burglary? Burglary Andy and Matthew may be guilty of burglary for breaking into Joes home as trespassers with an intention to assault both Joe and Betty. Actus Reus As we can see from the facts the actions of both Andy and Matthew in breaking into Joes home may substitute the trespassing and home for the purpose of a building. Case? Mens Rea On the facts this was actioned knowingly without permission with a firm intent to commit an assault: R v Collins (1972) [14] Aggravated Burglary If burglary can be established between Andy and Matthew they may be also be found guilty of aggravated burglary due to the carrying of a firearm at the time and knowingly entering with intent to do so. Actus Reus Both Matthew and Andy entered intending to assault Joe carrying loaded pistols at the time of their entry. With no apparent reason on the facts to dispute that Joe was not present in his house, hence an inference may be drawn by the jury not suggesting otherwise: R v Verde (2009) [15] Mens Rea: Both Andy and Matthew on the facts intended to threaten to cause injury to a person inside the house if he they were disturbed during the burglary: R v Verde [2009] [16]. They also had the weapon for a purpose connected with the burglary as discussed about albeit for armed robbery: R v Kolb Adams (2007) [17]. Matthew may also be charged of extortion with threat to kill Extortion with threat to kill Furthermore on the above aggravated burglary charge this may be coupled with Matthews threat to kill Betty which may contravene S.27A B regarding extortion with a threat to kill. Actus Reus Matthew clearly made a demand of Betty to lie down on the floor and remain silent or he will kill her. Leaving Joe fearing for his life and that of his wife if they did not submit: R v Lawrence (1980) [18] Mens Rea: On the facts Matthewss intention to threaten to kill was an attempt to create fear of the infliction of harm: Ryan v Cuhl (1979) [19]. Is Andy liable for the common law crime of false imprisonment against Betty? False imprisonment Andy may be liable for the Criminal offence of false imprisonment due to unlawful restraint and threats to both Joe and Betty. Actus Reus As we can see from the facts Andy drags Betty into another room tying her hands and feet with rope and taping her mouth in order for her not to scream. Clearly unlawfully restraining Betty from her liberty to freedom of movement, furthermore confining her into the custody of one room: Ruddock v Taylor (2005) [20] Mens Rea: Andy held a clear intention to unlawfully restrain Betty against her will as a consequence of his threats to kill her and Joe if they did not comply: R v Garrett (1988) [21] Defences There is little to no likelihood that Andy may raise a defence of lawful justification for his actions upon the facts: Blackstone [22] Andys Liability Is Andy liable for contravening S.22 23 of the Crimes Act 1958 regarding Bettys unborn child. Conduct endangering life/Reckless conduct endangering serious injury Andy may be charged as a result of engaging voluntarily in the conduct of restraining Betty without lawful excuse that may have placed her unborn child in danger of death. S.22 23 Actus Reus It can be clearly established that Betty whimpered that she was 7 months pregnant, however Andy voluntarily and recklessly continued without lawful excuse to assault and restrain causing possible serious injury by way of miscarriage on Bettys unborn child: R v Crabbe (1985)[23] Mens Rea Applying the test in: Ryan v Walker (1966) [24] to the possible death by way of miscarriage to Bettys unborn child. The Jury may infer that this possibility was contemplated by Andy as a result of his continued restraint and threat to kill. Furthermore evidence of Andy contacting authorities alluded to his realisation and contemplation of danger or serious injury. Defences: There may be a minimal defence to debate the intent on Andys behalf to place Bettys unborn in danger by the subsequent contacting of authorities furthermore death did not result, hence the actus reus of the consequence failed to occur: R v NuriI (1990) [25] however a finding on the continuation of Bettys restraint at the time of the offence may weigh more heavily against Andys contemplation: R v Crabbe (1985).[26]. It must also be noted that in R v Hutty (1953) [27]a person is not a being until he or she if fully born in a living state however R v West (1848) [28] negates this and still establishes homicide if a child is born and subsequently dies. Does Andys use of stolen licence plates constitute theft for the purposes of s.72 (1) s.73 (5) s.73 (12) Theft Andy may be charged with theft by the action of stealing or dishonestly appropriating another persons licence plates with the intention of permanently depriving them from the owner. Actus Reus Clearly Andy was unauthorised to appropriate or physical take and carry away: The king v James Lapier (1784)[29]. Another persons tangible property: Oxford v Moss (1979) [30]in this case being licence plates for the commission of the offence. Mens Rea It may be inferred that Andy had specific intent to dishonestly deprive s.73(12) the owner of rightful possession of the licence plates for his own right to use: Stein v Henshall (1976)[31] furthermore this can be strengthen by the lack of consent: R v Senese (2004) [32] Are both Andy and Matthew liable for kidnapping Joe under S.63a Kidnapping Andy and Matthew may be liable for demanding Joe to drive to the supermarket to intentionally open the safe for their advantage in return for his release. Actus Reus On the facts we can clearly see that Joes personal liberty or freedom of choice was removed primarily by way of a threat to kill unless he complies: Wellard v R(1978) [33]. Secondly this was performed by Joe being carried away in the form of a car by Andy and Matthew. Thirdly this was achieved by force without consent. This may be inferred by a Jury as his wife Betty was clearly in an injured state. Fourthly at no point was there any justified lawful excuse: R v D (1984) [34]. Mens Rea Andy and Matthew both shared intent in agreeing to perform the kidnapping in order to fulfil their common purpose of performing the robbery. Case Did the actions of Joe opening the safe constitute a criminal offence under s.9AG. Duress Joe may not be found guilty of a criminal offence pertaining to the opening of the safe under duress due to a threat to kill Betty. Actus Reus: On the facts a threat of immediate death was made towards Betty unless both remained compliant. Joe being clearly overborne by this indirect threat subsequently led his will to be placed under duress, furthermore serious personal violence overbearing his ability to become resistant or no opportunity to restrain lead may lead to a strong justification for his actions of opening the safe: Attorney-General v Whelan (1934) [35] Mens Rea Clearly Joe had no intent to perform this criminal offence if he was not under duress, his will was overborne with fear for his life and that of his wife. Defences Joe has a strong case in establishing duress: R v Brown (1986). [36] Furthermore a jury may infer that carrying out the conduct was the only reasonable way that the threatened harm could have been avoided. s.9AG. (b) Are both Andy Matthew guilty of committing Robbery/Armed Robbery contravening s.75 s.75A? Robbery/Armed robbery Both Andy Matthew as an accessory may be equally guilty of robbery for stealing the contents of a safe by force through Joe by means of fear with the use of firearms. Actus Reus Joe was aware of the theft and subsequently was compelled by force or fear to submit to Andys demands to open the supermarket and safe, this prevention by violence or threat establishes robbery under s.75 the use of firearm establishes armed robbery for the purpose of s.75 a (1) enabling the two to have the safe opened and its contents permanently deprived of the owner. It is clear that Joe being the supermarket manager satisfying s.75 a (1) as the applicable person or custodian of the property in this instance: Smith v Desmond (1965)[37] Mens Rea It is clear that Andy and Matthew intended to place Joe under duress by the use of a deadly weapon to intimidate Joe to fear for his life and that of his wife. case Defences Regardless if Andy believed he had an honest entitlement by way of his intentions of support for the Karen tribe as a claim for defence, it is unnecessary to prove this: R v Langham. (1984) [38] furthermore would not constitute lawful excuse at any rate under the Firearms Act (1996) s.132 (2). Thirdly a claim for military necessity would not apply due to his departure from the SAS and proportionality arguments contravening multiple international humanitarian law conventions regarding legal use of force.[39] Andys Liability over Joes serious injuries sustained. Causing serious injury intentionally Andy may be charged under s.16 17 s.22 for pistol whipping Joe until he became unconscious. Actus Reus It may be established on the facts that Joe clearly suffered no less than serious grievous bodily harm by Andys act of pistol whipping to the point of unconsciousness DPP v Smith (1961)[40]. Due to this act being in furtherance of a crime it would constitute without lawful excuse for the purposes of s.16 of the crimes act 1958. Mens rea Andys intent may be established sufficiently in causing intentionally serious injury through the furtherance of a crime or alternatively through recklessness. Meyers v R (1997) [41] It is possible that recklessness may also be established given the nature of Andys training received through the SAS in the continued use of such force being reasonable foreseeable that such a consequence may arise R v Coleman (1990) [42]. Andy may also be liable under s.22 for recklessly engaging in conduct that renders Joe in danger of death with the carrying of a firearm it also may be sufficient to be deemed guilty for grievous bodily harm and breech of s.31a R v Faure (1999)[43]. as a probable consequence he may be deemed just as blameworthy as the conduct of one who does an act intended to kill or to do grievous bodily harm. R v Crabbe (1985) [44] Is Matthew triable as a principal offender as an abettor for his involvement in the commission of a crime under S.323? Abettors in indictable offences are triable as principal offenders Matthew may be charged for assisting Andy at the scenes of the crime furthermore encouraging and procuring by taking appropriate steps towards the commission of the offence under S.323 Crimes act 1958. Actus Reus Matthew agreeing to take part in the robberies hence satisfies the preparation arm or to â€Å"abet† in agreeing to the commission of the offences Thambiah v R (1966)[45], Secondly clearly he â€Å"aided† when he broke into the home acting in concert, hence not derivative to the principal offence also by carrying loaded pistols and when he threatened Betty and Joe performing the subsequent false imprisonment Osland v R (1998) [46] Thirdly Matthew â€Å"counselled† by â€Å"keeping nit† and not changing the course of action R V Whitefield (1983) [47] whilst the robbery took place. These actions show the series of steps undertaken in the commission of the offences constituting a breach of s.323. Mens Rea Matthew may be found guilty due to the fact that at no time Matthews intention knowingly or wilfully changed to the knowledge and acceptance of the pre formed sequence of events R v Bainbridge (1959)[48]. [1] Osland v R (1998) 159 ALR 170 [2] Tangye (1997) 92 a Crim R 545 [3] ibid at 545 [4] Osland v R (1998) 159 ALR 170 [5] R v Lowery and King [No.2] (1972) VR 560 [6] R V Jones (1832) 4 b Ad 345 at 349 [7] James v. Robinson (1963) 1 CLR 593 at p 618 [8] Hoar v R (1981) 148 CLR 32 [9] R. v. Tripodi (1955) SCR 438 [10] Gerakiteys v R (1984) 153 CLR 317 at 7 [11] R v Theophanous (2003) 141 A Crim R 216. [12] R V Darby (1982) 40 ALR [13] R V Darby (1982) 40 ALR 601 [14] R v Collins (1972) 2 All ER [15] R v Verde (2009) VSCA 16 [16] R v Verde [2009] VSCA 16 [17] R v Kolb (2007) QCA 180 [18] R v Lawrence (1980) 32 ALR 72 [19] Ryan v Cuhl (1979) VR 315 [20] Ruddock v Taylor (2005) 222 CLR 612 [21] R v Garrett (1988) 30 SASR 392. [22] Blackstone, Book 4, Chapter 14 [23] R v Crabbe [1985] 156 CLR 464 469 [24] Ryan v Walker (1966) VR 553 [25] R v NURI (1990) VSCA 7 [26] R v Crabbe [1985] 156 CLR 464 469 [27] R v Hutty (1953) VLR 338 at 339 [28] R v West (1848) 2 Cox cc 500 [29] The king v James Lapier (1784) 168 ER 263 and Wallis v Lane [1964] VR 293 [30] Oxford v Moss (1979) 68 Cr App Rep 183 [31] Stein v. Henshall (976)V.R. 612 [32] R v Senese (2004) VSCA 136SDSD [33] Wellard v R(1978) 67 Cr App R 364 [34] R v D (1984) 2 all er 449 [35] Attorney-General v Whelan (1934) IR 518 at 526 [36] R v Brown (1986) 43 SASR 33 at 37. [37] Smith v Desmond (1965) AC 960. [38] R v Langham. (1984) 36 SASR 48 [39] Article 52 of Additional Protocol to the Geneva Conventions [40] DPP v Smith 1961 AC 290 [41] Meyers v R [1997] HCA 43; (1997) 147 ALR 440; (1997) [42] R v Coleman (1990) 19 NSW 467 [43] R v Faure (1999) 2 VR 537 [44] R v Crabbe [1985] HCA 22; (1985) 156 CLR 464 (26 March 1985) [45] Thambiah v R (1966) AC 37 [46] Osland v R (1998) 197 CLR 316 [47] R V Whitefield (1983) 79 Cr App R 36 [48] R v Bainbridge (1959) 3 ALL ER 200

Early History Of Public Health Health And Social Care Essay

Early History Of Public Health Health And Social Care Essay Contemporary public health has evolved through various historical stages. Its development as a discipline has been shaped throughout many years from the ancient times to the present day and different pioneers from different countries tremendously contributed to its historical evolution. Furthermore, public health evolution has been marked by several changes since its inception and these changes were influenced by the newly developed ideas and scientific evidences for the purpose of improving the health of the population (Porter, 1994). The essay here, in its first part, will attempt to discuss in more details the most important changes that public health has undergone in the course of its evolution and why these changes occurred. In the second part, the explicit meaning of essential components of public health will be discussed and the way these should be achieved will be proposed throughout. MOST IMPORTANT CHANGES IN THE HISTORY OF PUBLIC HEALTH AND REASONS FOR THESE CHANGES Throughout human race history, health problems have existed and have been concerned mainly with community well-being. Most of these health problems were mostly caused by communicable diseases related to poor physical environment, insufficiency supply of water and food of good quality and poor provision of medical care. Interventions to cope with the above health issues have changed over time but closely linked and this led to what is known today as modern public health (Rosen, 1993, p.1). 1.1. Early history of public health Available literature demonstrates that there are evidences of activities associated with the improvement of community health that have existed from the ancient times. Rosen (1993:1) outlines that, in the north India some 4000 years ago, archaeological findings have shown that there has been a developed urban planning system with great sanitation and housing. He further adds that other evidences have shown, in other Asian countries, that the same system was largely developed mostly in Egypt to mention but a few. Apart from the above earliest development, public health continued its evolution over the centuries pioneered by several authors among them Hippocrates. This honored Greek physician, also known as the father of medicine because of his commendable contribution on the practice of medical ethics for physicians demonstrated how proper diet, fresh air, a moderate climate and attention to lifestyle and living conditions were important for healthy living (Schneider Lilienfeld, 2008:5). Later on, other societies inspired by the Greek civilisation, as it is the case for the Romans, continued to develop water and sanitation infrastructure and healthcare system. Schneider and Lilienfeld, (2008:5) reported that, further to the public health systems that were just introduced, Romans put in place governmental administration systems to overseeing the initiated changes. However, these early public health initiatives did not benefit all the population; vulnerable groups like slaves and those living in poverty did not have access to the safe drinking water and adequate sanitation and continuously suffered high rate of diseases as it is now noted in some parts of the world (Schneider Lilienfeld, 2008:5). 1.2. Middle Ages After these early development of public health, came the Medieval Ages (500-1500 A.D.) that were characterised by a decline of the Greco-Roman powers due to disintegration from within and invasions from outside that destroyed public health infrastructure(Rosen,1993:26). During this period, health problems were thought to be having spiritual causes and the remedy as well. This belief was shared by both pagans and Christians. It was believed, for Christians, that there was a link between sin and the occurrence of disease and the latter was considered to be a punishment (Rosen, 1993:26). Biological and physical environment as the main factors in transmissible disease causation were ignored and this was the main implication of the spiritualism during this era and as a result it was difficult to control the epidemics that erupted leaving millions of people dead and others suffering from their sequels (International Health Sciences University, 2012). Rosen (1993:35) states that the 2 devastating epidemics that may be considered which prevailed during this time are the Plague of Justinian and the Black Death in 543 and 1348 respectively. Moreover, other outbreaks between the above 2 dates ravaged Europe and other regions around Mediterranean Sea notably but not exhaustively: leprosy, smallpox, diphtheria, measles, tuberculosis, and scabies. Causes of these epidemics were not identified yet but it was thought that poor living conditions were highly associated. After these horrific epidemics occurrence, various measures were put in place in Europe cities to fight against them and consequently improve public health. Establishment of butcheries and regulation about livestock possession, regulation of food at public market, food preservation and garbage disposal are the measures that proved to be effective in preventing disease transmission from animals to people or between people. Additionally, food preservation regulation played a key role in prevention of food borne diseases from damaged and expired food (International Health Sciences University, 2011). 1.3. Renaissance Era The development of public health did not stop in Middle Ages. The followed period of renaissance (1500-1700 of Christian era) was marked by a rejection of older theories. However, the old theories helped in developing new ones. Spiritual theory about the cause of disease started to be doubtful as epidemics killed both sinners and saints. Environmental factors were uncovered to be the leading cause in the development of infectious diseases. Further critical observations of sick people, signs and symptoms they presented have shown that various illnesses were distinctly separate (International Health Sciences University, 2012). It is worth to note that, during renaissance era, various authors brought new discoveries in the development of public health. Rosen (1993) reported that the Italian Giolamo Fracastoro brought in the theory of contagion where he showed the role of microorganisms in infectious diseases development and the way the communicable diseases are transmitted. The Dutchman Anton von Leeuwenhoek, the inventor of microscope, was the first man to confirm that the theory Giolamo Fracastoro developed was probably true after his observation of microbes agents. Indeed, the contribution of other authors (Petty, John Graunt and Gottfried Achenwall) in this important era of public health evolution was significant. They introduced the concept of measurement in public health to quantify health problems like calculations of mortality, life expectancy and fertility (Rosen, 1993). Despite this new era of rethinking and developing new ideas about public health, some diseases like malaria, smallpox and plague continued ravaging and killing many people in some European countries. Also, travels and movements between urban and rural areas dominated this era, explaining the spread of these illnesses to other areas causing suffering to their inhabitants. 1.4. The enlightenment epoch This is the period from 1750 to mid-nineteenth century (Encyclopedia of Public Health, 2002).The enlightenment era is considered to be the era where public health discipline has known tremendous progress. Rosen (1993) states that enlightenment era was seen as pivotal in the development of public health. Industrial development was the main turning point during this era. Likewise, social and political development has remarkably had a great impact on societal transformation and the knowledge about the way communicable diseases are spread has increasingly improved. (Encyclopedia of Public Health, 2002). Despite the remarkable changes, it is stated that health conditions were still demanding due to the great number of people moving towards industrial areas in the cities, poor sanitation system and insufficiency in clean water supply. Additionally, working conditions were not conducive for those mainly working in mines and factories. All of these factors largely contributed to the spread of diseases (Rosen, 1993). In England, Edwin Chadwick demonstrated the reality of poverty disease cycle and attempted to measure the association between poverty and disease. Also, Chadwick linked the disease with environmental factors. His report The Report of a General Plan for the Promotion of Public and Personal Health (1850) attracted attention and is considered by many as one of the important documents of modern public health (Encyclopedia of Public Health, 2002). Chadwicks evidences were later proved by John Snows work during the famous 1848 London cholera outbreak where he identified that the contamination of water pump was the probable origin of the epidemic (International Health Sciences University, 2012). Towards 19th century, new discoveries in bacteriology emerged. The great work of the Frenchman Luis Pasteur collaboratively with other scientists showed that micro-organisms were responsible of diseases occurrence thus proving to be false the theory of spontaneous generation developed before; henceforth the germ theory was born. Later on, the Germany Robert Koch proved that one micro-organism causes specific disease (International Health Sciences University, 2012). Following these remarkable findings, some medicaments were developed including some disinfectants which became popular in medical practice and as a result, mortality and morbidity rates declined significantly. Additionally, the identification of microbes as causative agents of diseases resulted in an establishment of immunology as a science and subsequently the vaccines were developed (International Health Sciences University, 2012). 1.5. Twentieth Century Early on, decrease in mortality and morbidity rate was significant following the bacteriology emergence in later 19th Century. On the other hand, serious health problems did not disappear; infant mortality among others. It is reported that, for the time being, in Europe and in the United States of America health programs for improving maternal and child health were developed (Encyclopedia of Public Health, 2002). Academic programs in public health were developed, given the growing scope and complexity of public health problems, to deal with research issues and to train public health personnel. Health organisations agencies and charities were established in tackling public health concerns for particular groups of population (Rosen, 1993). Later on in twentieth century, expansion of public health roles continued and its horizon broadened. However, 1920s and early 1930s saw a slow development of public health. There was a decline in disease prevalence as a result of establishment of sanitary measures. In the aftermath of World War II, there was an increasing growth of health infrastructure in the curative field but little attention was paid to planning 1960s and early 1970s marked what was named period of social engineering. The main characteristic of this period was the economic growth chiefly in the United States of America but part of the population were medically uncovered (International Health Sciences University, 2012). Later 1970s to 1980s, health promotion initiatives, eradication of certain diseases that ravaged the world before and the emergence of new infectious disease were making headlines. Encyclopedia of public health (2002) states that the emergence of Human Immunodeficiency Virus infection, use of addictive drugs and air pollution were the main preoccupations of World Health Organisation and other international agencies. Conclusion As a final point, it is obvious that public health as a discipline has its own history which evolved over time from the early history of human race till today. The focus of public health enlarged as time advanced as health problems. At the same time, the future of public health will be and will remain of an utmost importance in solving populations health where everyone is invited to play his/her active role. MEANING OF ESSENTIAL PUBLIC HEALTH COMPONENTS AND THE WAY THEY SHOULD BE ACHIEVED 2.1. Collective responsibility for health and the major role of the state in protecting and promoting health Health sector is the main sector that deals with the health of populations. However, this does not mean that its activities are the only concerned with the promotion of community health. World Health Organisation (2013) states that the health of populations is determined not only by the health sector but also by social and economic factors, and henceforth, policies and other actions other than of those of health sector. In developing health policies, governments should work collaboratively with other sectors involved in development process such as finance, education, agriculture, environment, housing and transport to see how their planning can reach their objectives while also improving health. Also, this intersectoral partnership helps in tackling other health related issues such as those activities that pollute environment or promote those activities aimed at having access to quality education or gender equality. 2.2. Focus on the whole population Public health activities are intended to promote the health of the whole population rather than individuals health. According to Riegelman (2010) the first thing to come to mind, in public health, is the health of the community and the society in general. Indeed, in public health the activities to improve the health are no longer individual-centered but rather population-centered. To achieve this, collaboration between all development sectors is needed given the wide view of public health. The involvement of all development actors is seen as a comprehensive way of thinking about the scope of public health and it is an evidence-based approach for the analysis of health determinants and illnesses. This leads to evidence-based interventions to protect and improve health (Riegelman, 2010). 2.3. Emphasis upon prevention Prevention constitutes a key component of public health practice. It has been said that prevention is better than cure; this statement shows how much prevention activities are of a paramount importance in public health. Health promotion and disease prevention activities play a key role in tackling health problems that the community faces which, in many cases, are preventable (World Health Organisation, 2002). Strategies for prevention that aim to alleviate the risk factors by promoting healthy behaviours and reducing dangerous exposures need a collaboration between government and different stakeholders and active participation of the population(World Health Organisation,2002). 2.4. Recognizing underlying socio-economic determinants of health and disease Socioeconomic determinants with other determinants of health (biological, environment, culture, personal behaviour, living and working conditions) mostly influence the health status of population. Further, these health determinants may interact with other factors for better or worse. Importantly, socioeconomic factors are thought to be major determinants of health. Washington State Department of Health (2007) reports that Health impacts associated with lower socioeconomic position accumulate and persist throughout the lifespan. The partnership between public health professionals, community, nongovernmental organisations and governmental institutions is a major force to fix this issue (Washington State Department of Health, 2007). 2.5. Partnership with the population served The collaboration with the community in addressing health issues is a core part of health promotion activities. Declaration of Alma Ata (1978) claims that the maximum involvement of community and individual self-reliance and the active participation in planning, organisation, operation and control of primary healthcare are the basis of success in health promotional activities. Therefore, policies, strategies and plan of action should be established by the government to ensure that primary healthcare is launched and sustained as a core part of health system in partnership with other sectors. 2.6. Multidisciplinary basis Multidisciplinary feature of public health is unquestionable. According to Tzenalis Sotiriadou (2010:50), the engagement of various stakeholders in the task of improving health of population shows that promoting health does not belong to one group of professionals or sector of health services. The joint action from various professional groups at every level is reported to be effective and recommended in providing health promotion services (Solheim, Memory Kimm 2007 cited in Tzenalis Sotiriadou, 2010). Conclusion Altogether, the above described core components of modern public demonstrate how much wide the discipline of public health is. The active participation of all involved stakeholders is the key towards the success of public health practice.

asia pop. :: essays research papers

Right now there is a major problem involving the population of South Asia. In India’s best years just about half of the population was properly fed because the population was so enormous. Not to add that the foods they get are fruits, vegetables, and rice. This is not a way to live. Also AIDS is a pretty big problem in India. It is estimated that one in five adults will have been diagnosed with the AIDS virus by the year 2003. Because prostitution is legal in parts if India the AIDS virus can spread very quickly. Besides the AIDS rate skyrocketing, the birthrate does too. I have created a plan worldwide to help India and other countries that need help. In my plan most of the Funding will be provided by a simple tax. I plan on raising tobacco costs by 25 cents. Right now the United States makes 400 billion sales in tobacco a year. That means a lot of money would be available after my 25-cent tax. That tax money would go towards India’s government for education. Phase two of my plan I plan on making prostitution illegal in India. That would cut India’s AIDS population by one third. Officers will enforce the streets and the government would not have to pay extra because of the tobacco increase. Tobacco money will build new jails and hire more officers. This will also provide more jobs. Prostitution crimes will receive a minimum of two years in jail (for the first offense). Phase three takes place next year. It is a law that permits families to have no more than one child. The family will receive two thousand dollars for having only one child. If the family has more than one child the family will have to pay a heavy tax of fifteen thousand dollars. If the family cannot afford to pay the tax the father and mother are forced to alternate turns in jail for a minimum of three years. This plan is not harming the individual because they are harming themselves my having children. The plan will be announced now and promoted for future notice. This way next year the plan can take effect. New jails will be built for the people that do not pay the child tax. The next phase of my plan is to educate the country. More tobacco money will be spent on educating all of India.

Experiencing Brave New World in 1998 :: Aldous Huxley Brave New World Essays

Experiencing Brave New World in 1998 Since good literature transports the reader to immersion, absorption and sensation of plot, the successful literary experience often unveils a segment of the self's concealed character. Aldous Huxley's Brave New World immerses the reader in a State scientifically constructed to produce perpetual happiness without hardship. Six centuries into the future, a world leader has designed a civilization flabbily devoid of balancing challenges by eliminating illness, geriatrics, fear of death, passion and love, parenting, poverty, and pursuit of anything. Its inhabitants exist in a bureaucratically controlled state of stability sans emotion. Brave New World is the citizen's polar experience to the prehistoric caveman's solitary existence of self. Today we struggle individually to establish satisfactory symmetry between these two states of bureaucracy and independence while bench-pressing multi-weighted challenges. A journey to Brave New World's civilization of the ridiculous elicits an excell ent measure of the 1998 reader's centeredness between the self's grip of autonomy and its interdependence with State. Franz Boas, primo cultural anthropologist, subscribed that studying the varied threads of cultural tapestry (what's different) facilitates the understanding of culture. Published in 1932, Brave New World presented greater bureaucratic exaggeration to a general readership unengaged in the battle of the balance. Government was barely a gadfly on the barbell, while the 1932 self indeed included the entire village of extended families and neighbors bolstering each other. Sixty-six years hence, government has infiltrated human life stealthily, while the individual has gradually isolated itself with a transient society and fast-track economy bearing down upon the burden-lifter like additional weights. Although hardship labels remain the same, the 1998 challenge of dealing with these afflictions is more complex. Health and psychiatric practitioners caution us that balance is next to godliness. Therefore, we strive in solitude to balance corporate positions with family disasters, our yin wit h our yang, our left brains with our right brains, and most importantly, our debits with our credits. Our state of autonomy depends upon our frame of reference, for it is easy to remain autonomous without adversity. Consider the reaction of the Brave New World reader who has experienced a loved one's serious illness and painful death as a solitary struggle to provide emotional, financial and HMO medical support. Through the assistance of Brave New World, the reader subsequently tours "The Park Lane Hospital for the Dying, a sixty-story tower of primrose tiles. The air is continuously alive with gay synthetic melodies.

Farewell To Arms Paper :: essays research papers

Hemmingway has a unique style of writing. It works on multiple levels. A person could read Farewell to Arms and enjoy it as a tragic love story. Hemmingway’s concise writing style allows a literal interpretation. At the same time a reader could get involved with the various symbols that he has placed in the novel. In a way everything he has can be used as a symbol depending on a person’s biases. This is what makes Hemmingway’s writing even more unique. He can have what seems to be a straightforward sentence have multiple meanings. The transcendentalist and romantic writing styles leave ideas vague so the reader can reflect on his/her own thoughts. Hemmingway is pragmatic in the sense that his writing can be read literally, but also romantic if you read his work more in depth. One symbol that Hemmingway seems to use constantly is night and the fear of darkness. Fredrick is afraid of the dark. What this seems to mean is that Fredrick is afraid to be in the unknown. This is the idea that males want to know what is around them. Fredrick is afraid of what he does not understand. This symbol is also seen in â€Å"A Way You’ll Never Be† where Hemmingway’s character Nick will not sleep without a light. When a person sleeps they are resting and it seems that Fredrick does not want to rest without â€Å"knowing†. If Nick were to have the light he would be able to see what was going on. This would allow Nick to â€Å"know† what is happening. Thus it could be seen that the symbol of the unknown and how the male characters want to â€Å"know† what is happening. Another analysis of this could be that Fredrick is afraid of the malicious things around him. This is the superficiality of the male. Basically in this sense the male w ants to live in his perfect little world and not worry about the complexities of life. This is the opposite of the fear of the â€Å"unknown† because in this sense the males do not want to know. Fredrick would then be scared of the evil around him. War is part of the â€Å"evil† around him because with war comes with real sadness. Frederick’s fear of darkness is really fear of those evil elements and the sadness around him. Fredrick is afraid of the sad reality. He wants to live in the simple superficial world he is in.

Hindrance to Effective Communication Essay

New technology such as smart phones should be a great asset and a powerful aid to helping us work more efficiently. We can respond to urgent emails on the go, refer to useful websites and look up quick facts. However, these gadgets, as well helping us, can also prove to be a hindrance providing information overload and constant interruptions. We receive so many emails and are exposed to so much information that it can be hard to distil what is actually important and what isn’t. We fill our brains with clutter and lose the ability to focus on our priorities and spend our time responding to trivial emails. We think we are multi-tasking but actually we are becoming less productive. We read each email but don’t always process the information we need. As a result, we risk irritating the sender by asking them to remind us what they said or to send the email again. More worryingly, we allow ourselves to be distracted from more important tasks by the seeming urgency of each email that comes in. This information overload doesn’t only impact the way we process information ourselves but can also have a negative impact on the way others perceive us. It is all too easy to give the impression that you are not listening to the other person. It can be quite obvious even on the telephone that you are distracted by your inbox rather than giving the speaker your full attention. In a face-to-face meeting, of course, it is only too apparent when the person you are talking to is distracted by their smart phone rather than focusing on the content of the meeting. In the past several years, texting and instant messaging have become phenomena that few of us have been able to escape. Though most popular with the younger generations, it is becoming increasingly common to see people of all ages absorbed in silent conversations on their cell phones. The availability of constant, instant communication makes many people feel connected to their friends in ways they never were before. But do these printed messages and instant responses help or hinder us socially? The instant messaging fad brought abbreviations such as â€Å"LOL† (Laugh Out Loud) and â€Å"BRB† (Be Right Back) into our language as commonly accepted â€Å"words.† The younger generations chatted happily in this new â€Å"language† while everyone else struggled to understand what â€Å"BTW† (By the Way) and â€Å"IDK† (I Don’t Know) meant. This phenomenon spread over into texting as children as young as five received the latest models of cell phones to communicate with their friends and family. Though everyone with a cell phone is clearly well-connected to other people, the question remains whether engaging in such constant, abbreviated communication is a help or a hindrance in personal relationship skills. Over the past decade there has been a dramatic difference in the attitudes and communication styles of the younger generations, but how much of this change has been compounded by the lack of face to face communication advocated by the texting craze? There is no way to tell for certain whether texting and instant messaging have actually caused the breakdown of one-on-one, face-to-face communication with people, but I believe it has not helped. Instead of using cell phones as a mere communication tool, many young people view them as a necessity they could not possibly live without. We have all seen people glued to their phones, their fingers flying over the keys as they stand in line at the store, or are walk down the mall, and even frighteningly enough, while they are driving. In one case, a pair of girls walking together in the mall admitted that they were texting each other! I have even been engaged in a conversation with someone when they whipped out their phone to send a text message to someone else! Is this the kind of society we are encouraging by allowing young people to be so dependent on their phones? A society where face to face communication all but ceases to exist in place of disembodied text messages, even when the person you are talking to is standing beside you? It may be true that the people sending and receiving those text messages are communicating with each other, but what does it say to the people who are actually physically around them? What happened to the days when you could walk through the store and complete strangers would smile and greet you as you passed? Have the basic societal manners of years gone by disappeared for good? Using cell phones to talk or text is not a bad thing in itself. However, it is my opinion that certain rules of etiquette should be applied when using them in order to maintain a respectful relationship with everyone you are in contact with. Being glued to your cell phone puts off a very distinct signal that you are unavailable and unapproachable to everyone around you. If you text a friend while talking to someone else you are telling the person in front of you that the friend is more important than they are. Bad grammar and spelling are also compounded by electronic communication. Constantly using abbreviations and fragments in instant communication ingrains these bad habits into a person. English teachers have always struggled to encourage correct spelling and grammar in their students. Now, with texting and instant messaging becoming so prevalent, their jobs are that much harder. And it is not just in the classroom where spelling and grammar have fallen by the wayside. Businesses who are interested in maintaining a high level of professionalism are often hard-pressed to find applicants who can spell, speak, and write properly. So, what can we do to help those people who are addicted to their phones remember that there is more to life than texting and instant messaging? I believe that parents should try to encourage their teenagers to talk on the phone for long conversations, rather than texting back and forth 500 times. Doing so will help teens develop real conversation skills which are not possible in the lingo of texting. Also, everyone should be encouraged to give their full attention to the person they are talking to. If you are engaged in a conversation with someone who starts texting some0one else, kindly ask them to finish talking with you first. If they refuse, simply walk away. I have used this method myself very effectively. Usually, if the person cares about you at all, they will realize how rude their behavior is. So, is texting and instant messaging a help or a hindrance? I believe it is both. Texting and instant messaging can be wonderful forms of communication when implemented correctly, but they can also be abused and have adverse effects. People of all ages need to realize that moderation is the key when using alternate forms of communication. By understanding when these forms are appropriate and when they are not, people can gain valuable communication skills, be more likely to absorb correct spelling and grammar principles, be more productive in the business world and appear far more approachable to the world in general. Since society as a whole is becoming increasingly dependent on the instant communication provided by cell phones, I believe that we must all do what we can to engage in respectful behavior ourselves and encourage it in others. Excellent communication, proper grammar and spelling do not have to be things of ages past. With a little effort and encouragement we can all help ensure that these important values of yesteryears are around for future generations. Texting is the preferred method of communication for young people. According to an article by Mike Flacy, DigitalTrends, â€Å"One in ten young adults between the ages of 18 to 24 report that they send or receive at least 200 text messages per day (approximately 6,000 messages per month). The next age group, 25-34 year olds, typically average about 42 texts per day and this trend continues to decrease down to about 5 texts a day for the 65 and older group.† 200 text messages per day? Do they have time to do anything else in life? Will these young adults get carpal tunnel syndrome of the thumbs? Do you prefer to text rather than talk? According to the survey, â€Å"Most people are too occupied and busy in today’s world that they hardly get enough time to have an elaborated conversation on phone, and hence prefer to communicate via text.† I can see the attraction to texting, however I do like to hear a person’s voice. The emotions and flavor of the conversation can be misunderstood more easily through texting. After all, you can’t hear the sighs and laughter while texting. Yes, you can text little acronyms like â€Å"LOL† and put little smiley faces in your text, but sarcasm and irony are lost in texting. I do like to get little morning text messages from my friends far away, and it is how I communicate with my son most of the time. But I would have to say, my preferred method of communication is voice or Skype. With texting taking over, hands-free devices are even more important. Many of the Smartphones have the capability of translating voice into text to send text messages without typing. A good quality Bluetooth headset with noise canceling makes this process much better. Do you have a Bluetooth mobile headset? I have a Droid X, which is a bit cumbersome to hold up to your ear to talk. I love having my Bluetooth headset to use, especially for multitasking around the house while talking on the phone. And of course with more and more states requiring hands-free devices while driving, a good headset is essential. Do you have one? What’s your favorite? Meanwhile, don’t get into any thumb wrestling contest with anyone under 30 years of age. You KNOW their thumbs are agile and strong from texting a bazillion words per minute.

Hauntington Disease

Huntington disease Name Institute Huntington Disease Introduction Shortage of information about Huntington disease (HD) and its non-clinical management inveigled me into a quest for journal articles about this comparatively rare illness. Having pored over scores of Journal of Clinical Nursing Issues, I stumbled across the article entitled â€Å"Exploring supportive care for individuals affected by Huntington disease and their family caregivers in a community setting†.It immediately arrested my attention, as it touched upon the possible implications of HD for the affected persons, their family members (including those, who could inherit the illness genetically) and caregivers. This article is a collaborative work of the three authors from the University of Plymouth, namely Beverley Soltysiak, Penny Gardiner and Heather Skirton. It was published first on 10 July, 2008. Summary of the articleAccording to McDonald (2003), Huntington disease, formerly known as Huntington’s c horea, is a chronic neurodegenerative condition caused by a genetic mutation in the Huntingtin gene, situated on chromosome 4†. The article traverses implications and supportive care approaches to the individuals, who suffer from Huntington disease. Authors argue that different approaches should be applied to various age categories of the affected. The difference in symptoms may be subtle at first glance, but younger individuals, affected by the long-term conditions, find facilities for their senior counterparts unsuitable.Important role in this regard belongs to the psychological aspects of the disease. People struck by HD tend to lead sedentary and recluse life. Huntington disease affects badly humans’ perception and cognition, renders their speech unintelligible, and makes them helpless to some extent in general. The far-reaching implications include unsteady gait and severe depressions, which sometimes result in strangers mistaking persons with HD for inebriates or drug abusers. It takes protracted periods of time and frenzied efforts of caregivers to jolt people ffected by Huntington disease out of the so-called â€Å"public alienation†. Authors argue that Huntington disease is debilitating in terms of its impact on the person’s physical condition, but they conclude that it is devouring person’s psychological strength even more eagerly. Sporadic outdoors activities lead to the development of the trait of standoffishness, which, in its turn, hinders the process of treatment. This illness is incurable, while affected people usually live no more than 30 years after the emergence of the first symptoms.However, multifarious therapies and techniques aimed at helping patients to cope with the disease are employed (physiotherapy, occupational therapy, speech therapy). A multidisciplinary approach is utilized to make sure that complex care needs are met. Research focuses in part on interviewing the afflicted people in order to und erstand better how to help them to deal with the problems they face every day (anxiety disorders, animosity, petulance, apathy, and obsession). Depending on their willingness to cooperate, separate persons were interviewed individually or in groups.It was found that participants with cognitive deficits or/and psychic disorders did not feel comfortable to communicate with impaired colleagues in groups, and consequently opted for individual interview or shunned it at all. The same specialists facilitated both group and individual interviews. â€Å"Data analysis was undertaken using inductive coding technique† (Miles & Huberman, 1994). Interviewers point out that it was a daunting task for them to conduct the research, because cognitive problems of people with Huntington disease barred interviewers from following their train of thought.The heed was paid to the participants’ standpoint on the following themes: 1) Deciding whether to have genetic test; 2) Being given the le thal diagnosis; 3) Disclosure of information about the participant’s being diagnosed with HD; 4) Entering into serious relationship and having a child; 5) Making decisions about how to let children know of the genetic mutation; 6) Observing a family member suffer and wither from HD. Following the diagnosis of one individual, other family members are haunted by or preoccupied with the fear of having genetic mutation.Some people prefer being oblivious to this possibility, while others, prompted by the desire to obtain confidence in future, eagerly agree to undergo a genetic test. In any event, propitious outcome of a genetic test has not proved to be a precondition for sunny disposition. It failed to provide them with a necessary degree of certainty, as those, who turned out to be healthy, started to monitor themselves vigilantly for the possible appearance of symptoms. Evaluation This article provides a comprehensive study of the implications of HD and the means to address the challenges that these implications entail.The main emphasis is placed on those with HD; though, a good amount of attention is also paid to their family members, who are prone to inherit the genetic mutation, and caregivers. Bearing in mind brevity of this research and overall paucity of research into non-clinical management of HD, it would not be wise to grumble about certain details that authors failed to examine. However, I see it fit to note that more approaches of incorporating the afflicted people into the social milieu should have been developed, or at least, more thorough analysis of those listed should have been provided.In terms of interest, I would give this article eight points out of ten. On the plus side, it is laced with excerpts from the interviews, which enable the readers to take a closer look at the problem. Moreover, authors managed to construe the material without abusing the buzzwords. This makes the article flow easily and renders it readable to a broad audien ce. Given the scarcity of knowledge about this area of health assessment, there are no slightest doubts that further research into this area should be carried out. Many gaps still are due to be filled. Some of the possible directions of research were mentioned above.The information highlighted in this article would be of an utmost importance to the family members of people with HD and those, who take care of these people. Hospital staff could also defer to some advice put forward by Soltysiak et al. This article constitutes a precious groundwork for the researchers, who are interested in this particular area. Conclusion People affected by Huntington disease have to address a series of challenges in everyday life. It should be noted that neither these very people, nor their relatives, lead ordinary life after a family member has een diagnosed with HD. Huntington disease seriously undermines person’s physical and psychological well-being, with psychological effects having far g reater scopes. Reluctance of the affected persons to engage in social activities exacerbated by their distorted vision of the world hampers the process of treatment. There is no efficient treatment at all; though, a number of therapies were developed to extenuate the implications. The problem is that at the same time as people with HD need outdoors activities to muster stamina, they also need to muster stamina to go outdoors.By and large, individuals prone to HD feel frustrated at the lack of information about HD held by health professors. References MacDonald, M. E. , Gines, S. , Gusella, J. F. & Wheeler, V. C. (2003). Huntington’s disease. Neuromolecular Medicine, 4. Miles, M. , Huberman, A. (1994). Qualitative data analysis – an expanded sourcebook. (2nded. ). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications. Soltysiak, B. , Gardiner, P. , Skirton, H. (2008). Exploring supportive care for individuals affected by Huntington disease and their family caregivers in a community sett ing. Journal of Clinical Nursing, 17, 7b, 226-234.